30 نصيحة لكي تصبح أكثر ذكاء

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />ديد<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><a href="http://www.bkhamsa.com/"></a><br /><br /><img src="http://www.5dqaaq.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Smart-man.jpg" /> <br />أختلف ‏تعريف‏ ‏الذكاء‏ ‏بين‏ ‏العلماء‏ ‏في‏ ‏السنوات‏ ‏الأخيرة‏ ‏فلم‏ ‏يعد‏ ‏اجتياز‏ ‏اختبارات‏ ‏الذكاء‏ ‏المعتادة‏ ‏هو‏ ‏المقياس‏ ‏الأوحد‏ ‏لتحديد‏ ‏مستوي‏ ‏ذكاء‏ ‏الفرد‏ ‏بل‏ ‏أصبح‏ ‏الأمر‏ ‏أكثر‏ ‏شمولية‏ ‏فقد‏ ‏أصبح‏ ‏النجاح‏ ‏في‏ ‏العمل‏ ‏والحياة‏ ‏الاجتماعية‏ ‏والعلاقات‏ ‏الشخصية‏ ‏والتميز‏ ‏والحضور‏ ‏وسرعة‏ ‏رد‏ ‏الفعل‏ ‏وسعة‏ ‏الأفق‏ ‏من‏ ‏الأمور‏ ‏التي‏ ‏تحدد‏ ‏مستوي‏ ‏الذكاء‏ ‏وتسهم‏ ‏في‏ ‏تقييمه‏ ‏بشكل‏ ‏كبير‏<br />‏وتقدم‏ ‏مجلة‏ ‏النيوزويك‏ ‏الأمريكية‏ ‏ثلاثين‏ ‏نصيحة‏ ‏لزيادة‏ ‏الذكاء‏ ‏والحضور‏ ‏لدي‏ ‏الفرد‏ ‏من‏ ‏خلال‏ ‏تنمية‏ ‏القدرات‏ ‏العقلية‏ ‏وتحسن‏ ‏عمل‏ ‏الذاكرة‏ ‏وزيادة‏ ‏القدرة‏ ‏علي‏ ‏استيعاب‏ ‏الأمور‏ ‏وتحليلها‏ ‏تحليلا‏ ‏منطقيا‏ ‏وهي‏ :‏<br />[ 1 ] ‏أشارت‏ ‏الأبحاث‏ ‏العلمية‏ ‏الحديثة‏ ‏إلي‏ ‏أهمية‏ ‏العاب‏ ‏تنمية‏ ‏الذاكرة‏ ‏والتي‏ ‏من‏ ‏أهمها‏ ‏علي‏ ‏الإطلاق‏ ‏الكلمات‏ ‏المتقاطعة‏ ‏نظرا‏ ‏لبساطتها‏ ‏وسهولة‏ ‏الحصول‏ ‏عليها‏ ‏فلا‏ ‏تشعر‏ ‏بتأنيب‏ ‏الضمير‏ ‏إذا‏ ‏قضيت‏ ‏بعض‏ ‏الوقت‏ ‏يوميا‏ ‏في‏ ‏محاولة‏ ‏حل‏ ‏ألغاز‏ ‏هذه‏ ‏اللعبة‏ ‏فلها‏ ‏فوائد‏ ‏عظيمة‏ ‏من‏ ‏أهمها‏ ‏الوقاية‏ ‏من‏ ‏تدهور‏ ‏القدرات‏ ‏العقلية‏ ‏ومرض‏ ‏الزهايمر‏.‏<br />[ 2] ‏الحرص‏ ‏علي‏ ‏تناول‏ ‏التوابل‏ ‏وخصوصا‏ ‏الكركم‏ ‏ففي‏ ‏الهند‏ ‏وتايلاند‏ ‏تقل‏ ‏معدلات‏ ‏تدهور‏ ‏القدرات‏ ‏العقلية‏ ‏بشكل‏ ‏كبير‏ ‏لأنهم‏ ‏معتادون‏ ‏علي‏ ‏تناول‏ ‏الطعام‏ ‏مضافا‏ ‏إليه‏ ‏مجموعة‏ ‏من‏ ‏التوابل‏ ‏تتألف‏ ‏من‏ ‏الكركم‏ ‏والكمون‏ ‏والكزبرة‏ .‏<br />[ 3 ] ‏ممارسة‏ ‏نشاط‏ ‏بدني‏ ‏معتدل‏ ‏بصورة‏ ‏يومية‏ ‏مثل‏ ‏التمرينات‏ ‏الرياضية‏ ‏البسيطة‏ ‏أو‏ ‏الجري‏ ‏وذلك‏ ‏لتنشيط‏ ‏الدورة‏ ‏الدموية‏ ‏بالجسم‏ ‏وزيادة‏ ‏نسبة‏ ‏الأكسجين‏ ‏في‏ ‏الدم‏ ‏مما‏ ‏يعني‏ ‏وصول‏ ‏كمية‏ ‏أكبر‏ ‏من‏ ‏الأكسجين‏ ‏إلي‏ ‏المخ‏.‏‏<br />[ 4 ] ‏الحرص‏ ‏علي‏ ‏الانضمام‏ ‏إلي‏ ‏حلقات‏ ‏نقاشية‏ ‏تشتمل‏ ‏علي‏ ‏آراء‏ ‏وأفكار‏ ‏مختلفة‏ ‏أو‏ ‏متابعة‏ ‏البرامج‏ ‏التي‏ ‏تحلل‏ ‏الأحداث‏ ‏المختلفة‏ ‏التي‏ ‏تمر‏ ‏بها‏ ‏بلاد‏ ‏العالم‏ ,‏ففي‏ ‏دراسة‏ ‏أجريت‏ ‏عام‏ 2009 ‏وجد‏ ‏أن‏ ‏الأشخاص‏ ‏الذين‏ ‏يتابعون‏ ‏القنوات‏ ‏الإخبارية‏ ‏المتنوعة‏ ‏أكثر‏ ‏حضورا‏ ‏وتفتحا‏ ‏من‏ ‏الأشخاص‏ ‏الذين‏ ‏يتابعون‏ ‏قناة‏ ‏إخبارية‏ ‏واحدة‏ ‏أو‏ ‏اثنتين‏.‏‏<br />[5 ] ‏عدم‏ ‏الاعتماد‏ ‏الكلي‏ ‏علي‏ ‏استخدام‏ ‏أجهزة‏ ‏التليفون‏ ‏المحمول‏ ‏واللاب‏ ‏توب‏ ‏والآي‏ ‏باد‏ ‏وغيرهما‏ ‏من‏ ‏الأجهزة‏ ‏التكنولوجية‏ ‏الحديثة‏ ‏التي‏ ‏تقلل‏ ‏من‏ ‏إعمال‏ ‏الشخص‏ ‏لعقله‏ ‏واعتماده‏ ‏علي‏ ‏الذاكرة‏.‏‏<br />[6 ] ‏الحصول‏ ‏علي‏ ‏القدر‏ ‏الكافي‏ ‏من‏ ‏النوم‏ ‏ليلا‏ ‏مع‏ ‏الحرص‏ ‏علي‏ ‏النوم‏ ‏لمدة‏ ‏ساعة‏ ‏في‏ ‏منتصف‏ ‏النهار‏ ‏فقد‏ ‏أشار‏ ‏العلماء‏ ‏إلي‏ ‏أن‏ ‏النوم‏ ‏ليلا‏ ‏لا‏ ‏يكفي‏ ‏لأن‏ ‏العقل‏ ‏يصاب‏ ‏بالارهاق‏ ‏من‏ ‏تراكم‏ ‏المعلومات‏ ‏ويكون‏ ‏في‏ ‏حاجة‏ ‏إلي‏ ‏شيء‏ ‏من‏ ‏الراحة‏ ‏لإعادة‏ ‏ترتيب‏ ‏المعلومات‏ ‏التي‏ ‏اكتسبها‏ .‏<br />[7 ] ‏الاطلاع‏ ‏علي‏ ‏تطبيق‏ ‏أو‏ ‏برنامج‏ ‏يحمل‏ ‏اسم‏ TED Technology , Entertainment , De sign ‏الذي‏ ‏يجتمع‏ ‏فيه‏ ‏أصحاب‏ ‏العقول‏ ‏العلمية‏ ‏الخلاقة‏ ‏كل‏ ‏عام‏ ‏حيث‏ ‏يعرضون‏ ‏أحدث‏ ‏ما‏ ‏توصل‏ ‏إليه‏ ‏العلم‏ ‏في‏ ‏جميع‏ ‏المجالات‏ ‏وخصوصا‏ ‏الأبحاث‏ ‏المتعلقة‏ ‏بالمخ‏ ‏البشري‏.‏<br />[8 ] ‏الحرص‏ ‏علي‏ ‏القراءة‏ ‏وإن‏ ‏لم‏ ‏تكن‏ ‏من‏ ‏محبي‏ ‏القراءة‏ ‏فعليك‏ ‏بقراءة‏ ‏كتاب‏ ‏واحد‏ ‏فقط‏ ‏في‏ ‏العام‏ ‏بعد‏ ‏زيارة‏ ‏المعرض‏ ‏السنوي‏ ‏للكتاب‏ ‏وانتقاء‏ ‏كتاب‏ ‏من‏ ‏أفضل‏ ‏الكتب‏ ‏التي‏ ‏نشرت‏ ‏خلال‏ ‏العام‏.‏<br />[9 ] ‏محاولة‏ ‏الاعتماد‏ ‏علي‏ ‏الذاكرة‏ ‏بأكبر‏ ‏قدر‏ ‏ممكن‏ ‏والتخلص‏ ‏التدريجي‏ ‏من‏ ‏القلم‏ ‏والورقة‏ ‏لإعطاء‏ ‏فرصة‏ ‏للذاكرة‏ ‏لحفظ‏ ‏أرقام‏ ‏التليفونات‏ ‏والمواعيد‏ ‏المهمة‏.<br />[10] ‏تعلم‏ ‏لغة‏ ‏جديدة‏ ‏فالتعلم‏ ‏بوجه‏ ‏عام‏ ‏يزيد‏ ‏من‏ ‏القدرة‏ ‏علي‏ ‏التركيز‏ ‏لأن‏ ‏اكتساب‏ ‏المعلومات‏ ‏وتخزينها‏ ‏في‏ ‏الذاكرة‏ ‏ثم‏ ‏استدعاءها‏ ‏مرة‏ ‏أخري‏ ‏مما‏ ‏يعمل‏ ‏علي‏ ‏تنشيط‏ ‏الذاكرة‏ ‏وزيادة‏ ‏كفاءتها‏.‏<br />[11] ‏تناول‏ ‏قطعة‏ ‏من‏ ‏الشيكولاتة‏ ‏الداكنة‏ ‏يوميا‏ ‏فهي‏ ‏تقلل‏ ‏من‏ ‏خطر‏ ‏الإصابة‏ ‏بمرض‏ ‏الزهايمر‏ ‏لأنها‏ ‏غنية‏ ‏بالفلافونويد‏ ‏ومضادات‏ ‏الأكسدة‏ ‏كما‏ ‏تساعد‏ ‏علي‏ ‏خفض‏ ‏معدلات‏ ‏الكوليسترول‏ ‏الضار‏ ‏وبالتالي‏ ‏تقي‏ ‏من‏ ‏الإصابة‏ ‏بتصلب‏ ‏الشرايين‏ ‏المسبب‏ ‏الأساسي‏ ‏لضعف‏ ‏الذاكرة‏ .‏<br />[12] ‏تنمية‏ ‏المهارات‏ ‏اليدوية‏ ‏لأنها‏ ‏تعمل‏ ‏بصورة‏ ‏غير‏ ‏مباشرة‏ ‏علي‏ ‏تنمية‏ ‏المهارات‏ ‏الذهنية‏ ‏من‏ ‏خلال‏ ‏التعلم‏ ‏وإكتساب‏ ‏المهارات‏.‏<br />[13] ‏التفكير‏ ‏الإيجابي‏ ‏والرضا‏ ‏الداخلي‏ ‏فقد‏ ‏أثبتت‏ ‏الدراسات‏ ‏أن‏ ‏السلام‏ ‏النفسي‏ ‏يزيد‏ ‏من‏ ‏قدرة‏ ‏الفرد‏ ‏علي‏ ‏الاستيعاب‏ ‏والتحليل‏ ‏وبالتالي‏ ‏التمتع‏ ‏بقدرات‏ ‏عقلية‏ ‏أفضل‏.‏<br />[14] ‏أشارت‏ ‏دراسة‏ ‏علمية‏ ‏إلي‏ ‏أن‏ ‏العاب‏ ‏الكمبيوتر‏ ‏والبلاي‏ ‏ستيشن‏ ‏تكسب‏ ‏الفرد‏ ‏مهارات‏ ‏التوافق‏ ‏العضلي‏ ‏العصبي‏ ‏وتزيد‏ ‏من‏ ‏سرعته‏ ‏في‏ ‏رد‏ ‏الفعل‏.‏<br />[15] ‏الحفاظ‏ ‏علي‏ ‏وجبة‏ ‏الإفطار‏ ‏التي‏ ‏تعد‏ ‏من‏ ‏أهم‏ ‏الوجبات‏ ‏في‏ ‏اليوم‏ ‏لأن‏ ‏الجسم‏ ‏يظل‏ ‏بدون‏ ‏تغذية‏ ‏طوال‏ ‏فترة‏ ‏النوم‏ ‏ليلا‏ ‏ويستمد‏ ‏الجسم‏ ‏الطاقة‏ ‏اللازمة‏ ‏للنشاط‏ ‏البدني‏ ‏والذهني‏ ‏من‏ ‏وجبة‏ ‏الإفطار‏. ‏‏<br />مقالات ذات صلة:<br />روشتة نجاح «الاستثنائيات» 5 خطوات لتكوني ضمنهن<br />[16] ‏تناول‏ ‏المزيد‏ ‏من‏ ‏الزبادي‏ ‏فقد‏ ‏أكدت‏ ‏دراسة‏ ‏أجريت‏ ‏مؤخرا‏ ‏علي‏ ‏الفئران‏ ‏أن‏ ‏تناول‏ ‏الزبادي‏ ‏يزيد‏ ‏من‏ ‏نشاط‏ ‏خلايا‏ ‏المخ‏ ‏وخصوصا‏ ‏تلك‏ ‏المسئولة‏ ‏عن‏ ‏المشاعر‏ ‏والذاكرة‏.‏<br />[17] ‏التعرض‏ ‏لأشعة‏ ‏الشمس‏ ‏فهي‏ ‏مصدر‏ ‏الشعور‏ ‏بالطاقة‏ ‏والتركيز‏ ‏لأنها‏ ‏تقلل‏ ‏من‏ ‏هرمون‏ ‏الملاتونين‏ ‏الذي‏ ‏يدفع‏ ‏الشخص‏ ‏إلي‏ ‏النوم‏.‏<br />[18] ‏مشاهدة‏ ‏المسرحيات‏ ‏المأخوذة‏ ‏عن‏ ‏الروايات‏ ‏الشهيرة‏ ‏لكبار‏ ‏الكتاب‏ ‏وعمل‏ ‏مقارنة‏ ‏بين‏ ‏الرواية‏ ‏والعمل‏ ‏الفني‏ ‏فالنقد‏ ‏والتحليل‏ ‏من‏ ‏أهم‏ ‏الأمور‏ ‏التي‏ ‏يتم‏ ‏فيها‏ ‏إعمال‏ ‏العقل‏. ‏<br />[19] ‏محاولة‏ ‏تنظيم‏ ‏الأفكار‏ ‏وترتيبها‏ ‏حتي‏ ‏يسهل‏ ‏إستدعاؤها‏ ‏وتذكرها‏ ‏مرة‏ ‏أخري‏ .‏‏<br />[20] ‏الإكثار‏ ‏من‏ ‏شرب‏ ‏الماء‏ ‏لأن‏ ‏الجفاف‏ ‏أو‏ ‏قلة‏ ‏الماء‏ ‏في‏ ‏الجسم‏ ‏يؤثر‏ ‏علي‏ ‏خلايا‏ ‏المخ‏ ‏تأثيرا‏ ‏سلبيا‏ ‏حيث‏ ‏يجعلها‏ ‏تضطرب‏ ‏ويفقدها‏ ‏كفاءتها‏ ‏في‏ ‏العمل‏.‏<br />[21 ] ‏الإكثار‏ ‏من‏ ‏الضحك‏ ‏فعندما‏ ‏يضحك‏ ‏الفرد‏ ‏تزداد‏ ‏قدرته‏ ‏علي‏ ‏الاستيعاب‏ ‏بنحو‏ 14 ‏ضعفا‏.‏<br />[22] ‏زيارة‏ ‏المعارض‏ ‏الفنية‏ ‏المختلفة‏ ‏وحضور‏ ‏حفلات‏ ‏موسيقية‏ ‏فالفن‏ ‏لا‏ ‏يزيد‏ ‏الذكاء‏ ‏فقط‏ ‏بل‏ ‏يقلل‏ ‏من‏ ‏الشعور‏ ‏بالضغط‏ ‏النفسي‏ ‏والتوتر‏ ‏الناتج‏ ‏عن‏ ‏ضغوط‏ ‏الحياة‏.‏<br />[23] ‏محاولة‏ ‏إتقان‏ ‏العزف‏ ‏علي‏ ‏آلة‏ ‏موسيقية‏ ‏فعزف‏ ‏الموسيقي‏ ‏يحسن‏ ‏من‏ ‏القدرات‏ ‏الذهنية‏ ‏لأنها‏ ‏تصفي‏ ‏الذهن‏ ‏وتجعل‏ ‏الفرد‏ ‏أكثر‏ ‏هدوءا‏ ‏بالإضافة‏ ‏إلي‏ ‏أنه‏ ‏يزيد‏ ‏من‏ ‏كفاءة‏ ‏التوافق‏ ‏الوظيفي‏ ‏للعضلات‏.‏<br />[24] ‏التخلص‏ ‏الحقيقي‏ ‏من‏ ‏الضغوط‏ ‏والمشكلات‏ ‏وتصفية‏ ‏الذهن‏ ‏فإذا‏ ‏لم‏ ‏يفكر‏ ‏الفرد‏ ‏في‏ ‏المشكلات‏ ‏فهي‏ ‏تشغل‏ ‏العقل‏ ‏الباطن‏. ‏‏<br />[25] ‏الحرص‏ ‏علي‏ ‏أخذ‏ ‏فترة‏ ‏من‏ ‏الراحة‏ ‏أثناء‏ ‏الاستذكار‏ ‏أو‏ ‏العمل‏ ‏مالا‏ ‏يقل‏ ‏عن‏ 15 ‏دقيقة‏ ‏كل‏ ‏ساعتين‏ ‏فالقدرة‏ ‏علي‏ ‏التذكر‏ ‏والاسترجاع‏ ‏تتراجع‏ ‏بعد‏ ‏هذه‏ ‏المدة‏ ‏من‏ ‏التركيز‏ ‏المتواصل‏.‏<br />[26] ‏مضغ‏ ‏اللبان‏ ‏فقد‏ ‏ثبت‏ ‏أنه‏ ‏يقوي‏ ‏الذاكرة‏ ‏بنسبة‏ 35 % ‏لأنه‏ ‏يحفز‏ ‏إفراز‏ ‏الأنسولين‏ ‏بالجسم‏ ‏والذي‏ ‏يحفز‏ ‏بدوره‏ ‏جزءا‏ ‏من‏ ‏الدماغ‏ ‏المتعلق‏ ‏بالذاكرة‏.‏<br />[27] ‏تناول‏ ‏قليل‏ ‏من‏ ‏القهوة‏ ‏لأنها‏ ‏تساعد‏ ‏علي‏ ‏زيادة‏ ‏التركيز‏ ‏وقوة‏ ‏الذاكرة‏ ‏ولكن‏ ‏يفضل‏ ‏عدم‏ ‏تناول‏ ‏أكثر‏ ‏من‏ ‏ثلاثة‏ ‏أكواب‏ ‏من‏ ‏القهوة‏ ‏يوميا‏.‏<br />[28] ‏عدم‏ ‏الإفراط‏ ‏في‏ ‏تناول‏ ‏المهدئات‏ ‏ومضادات‏ ‏الاكتئاب‏ ‏والعقاقير‏ ‏المنومة‏ ‏لأنها‏ ‏تؤثر‏ ‏سلبا‏ ‏علي‏ ‏كفاءة‏ ‏الذاكرة‏ ‏وكذلك‏ ‏التدخين‏ ‏والمشروبات‏ ‏الكحولية‏ ‏لأنهما‏ ‏يتسببان‏ ‏في‏ ‏تلف‏ ‏خلايا‏ ‏المخ‏. ‏<br />[29] ‏التنظيم‏ ‏فالنسيان‏ ‏يصبح‏ ‏أسهل‏ ‏في‏ ‏الفوضي‏ ‏في‏ ‏حين‏ ‏يسهم‏ ‏النظام‏ ‏في‏ ‏سهولة‏ ‏عمل‏ ‏الذاكرة‏ ‏وكذلك‏ ‏التركيز‏ ‏واستخدام‏ ‏الحواس‏ ‏الخمس‏ ‏في‏ ‏عملية‏ ‏تخزين‏ ‏المعلومات‏.‏<br />[30] ‏الخروج‏ ‏إلي‏ ‏الطبيعة‏ ‏والتأمل‏ ‏فقد‏ ‏أظهرت‏ ‏الدراسات‏ ‏العلمية‏ ‏أن‏ ‏التأمل‏ ‏والاسترخاء‏ ‏يعملان‏ ‏علي‏ ‏تحسن‏ ‏عمل‏ ‏الذاكرة‏ ‏بصورة‏ ‏أفضل‏ ‏من‏ ‏تناول‏ ‏العقاقير‏ ‏الطبية‏.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>

30 نصيحة لكي تصبح أكثر ذكاء

ديد أختلف ‏تعريف‏ ‏الذكاء‏ ‏بين‏ ‏العلماء‏ ‏في‏ ‏السنوات‏ ‏الأخيرة‏ ‏فلم‏ ‏يعد‏ ‏اجتياز‏ ‏اختبارات‏ ‏الذكاء‏ ‏المعتادة‏ ‏هو‏ ‏المقياس‏ ‏ال...

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How to become Pope?

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> many of us wonder how to become pope </div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> here is the answer  in few minutes  </div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <iframe allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" frameborder="0" height="266" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/kF8I_r9XT7A?feature=player_embedded" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" width="320"></iframe></div> <br /></div>

How to become Pope?

many of us wonder how to become pope  here is the answer  in few minutes  

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c'est quoi une cellule ?

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://www.alessandroconti.ch/coursbio/Biologiehumaine/fr/image/cellhumaine.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="188" src="http://www.alessandroconti.ch/coursbio/Biologiehumaine/fr/image/cellhumaine.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> <br /></div> <div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La <b>cellule</b> (du <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Latin">latin</a> <i>cellula</i> petite chambre) est l'unité de structure, fonctionnelle et reproductrice constituant toute partie d'un <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Atre_vivant" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Être vivant">être vivant</a> (dont les <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Virus">virus</a> ne font pas partie). Chaque cellule est une entité vivante qui, dans le cas d'organismes multicellulaires, fonctionne de manière autonome, mais coordonnée avec les autres. Les cellules de même type sont réunies en <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissu_biologique" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tissu biologique">tissus</a>, eux-mêmes réunis en <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organe" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Organe">organes</a>.</div> <div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9orie_cellulaire" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Théorie cellulaire">théorie cellulaire</a> implique l'unité de tout le vivant : tous les êtres vivants sont composés de cellules dont la structure fondamentale est commune ainsi que l'<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hom%C3%A9ostasie" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Homéostasie">homéostasie</a> du milieu intérieur, milieu de composition physico-chimique régulé et propice au développement des cellules de l'espèce considérée.</div> <div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> </div> <h2 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19.200000762939453px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.65em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Histoire_du_concept" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Histoire du concept</span></h2> <ul style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1665_en_science" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="1665 en science">1665</a> : <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hooke" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> découvre des cellules mortes dans du <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge_(mat%C3%A9riau)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Liège (matériau)">liège</a>, ces cellules lui font penser aux cellules d'un monastère, d'où le nom. Puis il observe des cellules dans des plantes vivantes, en utilisant les premiers microscopes.</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1839_en_science" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="1839 en science">1839</a> : <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Schwann" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Theodor Schwann">Theodor Schwann</a> découvre que les plantes et les animaux sont tous faits de cellules, concluant que la cellule est l'unité commune de structure et de développement, ce qui fonda la théorie cellulaire. Il donna son nom aux <i><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellule_de_Schwann" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cellule de Schwann">cellules de Schwann</a></i>.</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">La croyance selon laquelle des formes de vie peuvent apparaître spontanément (<i>génération spontanée</i>) est réfutée par <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> (1822-1895).</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1858_en_science" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="1858 en science">1858</a> : <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Rudolf Virchow">Rudolf Virchow</a> affirma que les cellules naissent du résultat de la division cellulaire (« omnis cellula ex cellula »), ce qui repose en termes cellulaires la question de l'œuf et de la poule. C'est précisément cette partie qui est attaquée par les tenants du <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%A9ationnisme" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Créationnisme">créationnisme</a> ou de son dernier avatar, le <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dessein_intelligent" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Dessein intelligent">dessein intelligent</a>.</li> </ul> <h3 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 16.799999237060547px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.6em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Th.C3.A9orie_cellulaire" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Théorie cellulaire</span></h3> <ol style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; list-style-image: none; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;"> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">La cellule est l'unité constitutive des organismes vivants. Elle en est aussi l'unité fonctionnelle.</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">L'organisme dépend de l'activité des cellules isolées ou groupées en tissus pour assurer les différentes fonctions.</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Les activités biochimiques des cellules sont coordonnées et déterminées par certaines structures présentes à l'intérieur des cellules.</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">La multiplication des cellules permet le maintien des organismes et leur multiplication.</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Cette théorie est formulée en 1838 par Schleiden et Schwann : la cellule est unité de vie (tout ce qui est vivant est cellulaire). Cette théorie évoque également la présence d'<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organite" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Organite">organites</a> à l'intérieur de ces mêmes cellules.</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">La cellule c'est l'unité anatomique, morphologique et physiologique de tout être vivant.</li> </ol> <h2 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19.200000762939453px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.65em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Notion_de_cellule" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Notion de cellule</span></h2> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Ici on se demande avant tout quelles sont les caractéristiques communes aux cellules, malgré leur diversité.</div> <h3 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 16.799999237060547px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.6em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Machine_.C3.A0_produire_de_l.27ordre" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Machine à produire de l'ordre</span></h3> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La cellule représente un état hautement organisé de la matière : maintenir cet ordre tout en étant soumis aux principes de la <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamique" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Thermodynamique">thermodynamique</a> nécessite la mise en place de structures permettant d'utiliser l'énergie et la matière extérieure (on crée de l'<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9guentropie" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Néguentropie">ordre</a> au niveau de la cellule mais l'<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropie" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Entropie">entropie</a> globale augmente) ; la cellule est donc un <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_dissipatif" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Système dissipatif">système thermodynamiquement ouvert</a>.</div> <h4 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(221, 221, 221); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 15.199999809265137px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.55em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Espace_clos_effectuant_des_.C3.A9changes_avec_l.27ext.C3.A9rieur" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Espace clos effectuant des échanges avec l'extérieur</span></h4> <div class="thumb tright" style="clear: right; float: right; font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 12px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 402px;"> <a class="image" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CellMembraneDrawing_(french).png" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="211" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/CellMembraneDrawing_%28french%29.png/400px-CellMembraneDrawing_%28french%29.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/CellMembraneDrawing_%28french%29.png/600px-CellMembraneDrawing_%28french%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/CellMembraneDrawing_%28french%29.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: middle;" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: none; font-size: 11.199999809265137px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px !important; text-align: left;"> <div class="magnify" style="background-image: none !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border: none !important; float: right;"> <a class="internal" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fichier:CellMembraneDrawing_(french).png" style="background-image: none !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border: none !important; color: #0b0080; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Agrandir"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf10/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-image: none !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border: none !important; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div> Une petite section d'une membrane cellulaire. Cette membrane de cellule moderne est bien plus sophistiquée que la simple <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phospholipide" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Phospholipide">phospholipide</a> à deux couches originelle (les petites sphères à deux queues). <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prot%C3%A9ine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Protéine">Protéines</a> et <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucide" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Glucide">glucides</a>ont plusieurs fonctions de régulation du passage de matériau à travers la membrane et de réaction à l'environnement.</div> </div> </div> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La cellule constitue une unité spatiale, délimitée par une membrane. Celle-ci, loin d'être une limite hermétique, constitue une surface d'échanges permettant la mise en place de flux.</div> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Les <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_plasmique" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Membrane plasmique">membranes plasmiques</a>, malgré leur diversité possèdent, sauf exceptions (certaines <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch%C3%A9es" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Archées">archées thermophiles</a> possédant une seule couche de lipides), une structure identique :</div> <ul style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">une bicouche phospholipidique composée de lipides <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphiphile" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Amphiphile">amphiphiles</a>, qui constitue un filtre de base permettant le passage des substances<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobe" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hydrophobe">hydrophobes</a>, freinant celui des <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophile" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hydrophile">hydrophiles</a>.</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">des protéines transmembranaires et périphériques aux rôles divers (transferts, transport, transduction de signaux...)</li> </ul> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La membrane agit non seulement comme un filtre, c'est-à-dire en laissant passer certaines molécules selon la différence de concentration (appelée à tort <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradient" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Gradient">gradient</a> de concentration) mais aussi en utilisant de l'énergie (osmotique, chimique...) pour favoriser les flux <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endergonique" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Endergonique">endergoniques</a>. Elle permet aussi le passage de la lumière, de la chaleur... En tant que surface de contact avec l'extérieur, elle assure aussi la transmission d'informations nécessaires à la réactivité de la cellule aux changements de l'environnement et à la coordination avec d'autres cellules.</div> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La membrane plasmique crée donc un espace clos en constant échange avec l'environnement proche.</div> <h4 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(221, 221, 221); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 15.199999809265137px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.55em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Compartimentation_:_mise_en_place_de_microenvironnements_aux_propri.C3.A9t.C3.A9s_sp.C3.A9cifiques" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Compartimentation : mise en place de microenvironnements aux propriétés spécifiques</span></h4> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La présence d'une membrane biologique entourant un espace, que ce soit le <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoplasme" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cytoplasme">cytoplasme</a> ou la lumière d'un organite, va permettre, en contrôlant les échanges des macromolécules, des ions (et de toute autre molécule) l'établissement de conditions favorisant certaines réactions par rapport à d'autres : en variant les différents facteurs physico-chimiques (pH, concentration en ions...), la nature des <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> et des produits, leur nombre...</div> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Cet environnement permet ainsi la <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosynth%C3%A8se" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Biosynthèse">biosynthèse</a> et la dégradation de molécules organiques, et ainsi le maintien d'une structure hautement organisée par un recyclage constant des molécules qui le forment.</div> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Cette compartimentation se trouve particulièrement poussée dans le cas des eucaryotes : elle permet la spécialisation fonctionnelle des différents organites (la composition de leur lumière étant différente, ils sont le siège de réactions différentes : on va ainsi pouvoir favoriser la production de tel produit dans un compartiment, sa destruction dans un autre).</div> <h4 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(221, 221, 221); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 15.199999809265137px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.55em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Flux_organis.C3.A9_de_mati.C3.A8re_et_d.27.C3.A9nergie" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Flux organisé de matière et d'énergie</span></h4> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Cette structure de base (une membrane organisant les échanges entourant un compartiment, lieu de réactions chimiques spécifiques) va permettre la mise en place et le maintien de flux de matière, d'énergie, d'information... traversant la cellule. Il y a donc une réelle organisation des échanges cellule-extérieur, qui va permettre au « système cellule » (au sens thermodynamique) de maintenir sa structure hautement organisée.</div> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Finalement, la cellule ne constitue pas une structure stable et immuable mais plutôt une entité dynamique nécessitant un apport constant de matière et d'énergie pour permettre son fonctionnement et le maintien de sa structure : seule son organisation persiste, ses constituants étant en perpétuel renouvellement.</div> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Le <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potentiel_de_repos" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Potentiel de repos">potentiel de repos</a> de la cellule détermine la différence de potentiel (<span class="need_ref" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; cursor: help;" title="Ce passage nécessite une référence (demandé le mars 2010).">-70 mV environ</span><sup class="need_ref_tag" style="line-height: 1em; padding-left: 2px;"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aide:R%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence_n%C3%A9cessaire" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Aide:Référence nécessaire">[réf. nécessaire]</a></sup>), avec l'intérieur de la cellule négatif.</div> <h3 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 16.799999237060547px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.6em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Cellule_vectrice_de_g.C3.A8nocondries" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Cellule vectrice de gènocondries</span></h3> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Cette structure résulte de l'expression d'un programme génétique complexe (permettant notamment la synthèse d'enzymes dont on vient de voir l'importance). Celui-ci doit être transmis, en même temps que la structure de base, au cours des divisions cellulaires. La cellule peut donc être considérée non seulement comme l'unité structurelle du vivant mais aussi comme un vecteur de gènes assurant leur transmission au fil des générations.</div> <h4 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(221, 221, 221); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 15.199999809265137px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.55em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Transmission_des_g.C3.A8nes_et_cycle_cellulaire" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Transmission des gènes et cycle cellulaire</span></h4> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La division cellulaire aboutissant, à partir d'une cellule mère, à deux cellules filles contenant le même <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9nome" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Génome">génome</a> (aux erreurs de copie près) nécessite la succession de phases de synthèse protéique permettant le renouvellement et la croissance cellulaire, de synthèse d'ADN et enfin de partition plus ou moins équitable de la cellule.</div> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La synthèse protéique résulte de l'expression du matériel génétique, elle se déroule en plusieurs étapes : <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_(biologie)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Transcription (biologie)">transcription</a> de l'<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acide_d%C3%A9soxyribonucl%C3%A9ique" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Acide désoxyribonucléique">ADN</a> en ARN, <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traduction" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Traduction">traduction</a> de l'<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acide_ribonucl%C3%A9ique" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Acide ribonucléique">ARN</a> en une chaîne polypeptidique, repliement de celle-ci (chez les eucaryotes s'insèrent des phases de maturation où l'on coupe et modifie la séquence synthétisée). La copie du génome est réalisée par toute une machinerie protéique permettant à l'ADN polymérase d'accéder à la séquence et de la copier, selon le principe d'appariement des bases.</div> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La partition de la cellule se fait par des mécanismes différents chez les procaryotes et les eucaryotes (nommée alors <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitose" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mitose">mitose</a>) : celle-ci consiste en la partition et la transmission du génome intégral de la cellule mère.</div> <h4 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(221, 221, 221); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 15.199999809265137px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.55em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Reproduction_sexu.C3.A9e_et_cycle_du_d.C3.A9veloppement" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Reproduction sexuée et cycle du développement</span></h4> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La cellule est là aussi le vecteur de gènes et permet un brassage génétique au sein de la population grâce aux processus cellulaires que sont la <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9iose" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Méiose">méiose</a> et la <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9condation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Fécondation">fécondation</a>.</div> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La reproduction sexuée est caractéristique des <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucaryotes" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Eucaryotes">eucaryotes</a>, mais il existe des mécanismes de brassage génétique chez les <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procaryotes" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Procaryotes">procaryotes</a>.</div> <h4 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(221, 221, 221); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 15.199999809265137px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.55em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Mort_cellulaire_:_la_cellule_au_service_de_l.27organisme_et_des_g.C3.A8nes" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Mort cellulaire : la cellule au service de l'organisme et des gènes</span></h4> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La cellule ayant reçu un signal de son environnement va exprimer un programme entraînant sa mort (l'<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoptose" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Apoptose">apoptose</a> étant un de ces mécanismes) : ce phénomène est nécessaire au développement des organismes pluricellulaires ; autant chez les végétaux (avec par exemple la mort des cellules formant le tube criblé), que chez les animaux (lors de la mise en place de la main chez l'homme : on a initialement une main palmée, la mort des cellules permet l'individualisation des doigts). Ce phénomène a aussi été découvert chez certaines bactéries (la mort cellulaire permet de limiter le nombre de bactéries lorsque les ressources sont insuffisantes).</div> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La cellule, tant pour les êtres pluricellulaires que pour les unicellulaires, constitue une structure vouée avant tout à permettre la reproduction de l'organisme et donc la transmission d'une structure de base contenant un programme génétique. Ainsi, certains auteurs ont été amenés à formuler la <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9orie_du_g%C3%A8ne_%C3%A9go%C3%AFste" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Théorie du gène égoïste">théorie du gène égoïste</a>, considérant les organismes (et donc les cellules) comme de simples structures destinées à assurer la transmission et la prolifération des gènes (le gène proliférant alors pour lui-même est qualifié d'égoïste).</div> <h3 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 16.799999237060547px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.6em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Interd.C3.A9pendance_cellulaire_:_de_la_cellule_.C3.A0_l.27organisme" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Interdépendance cellulaire : de la cellule à l'organisme</span></h3> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La cellule, en constant échange avec l'extérieur dépend entièrement de celui-ci. Elle dépend aussi et surtout des autres cellules, à plusieurs niveaux :</div> <h4 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(221, 221, 221); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 15.199999809265137px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.55em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id=".C3.8Atres_unicellulaires_:_la_cellule_.C2.AB_bonne_.C3.A0_tout_faire_.C2.BB" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Êtres unicellulaires : la cellule « bonne à tout faire »</span></h4> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Ici, l'être vivant ne comporte qu'une cellule : celle-ci doit donc assurer toutes les fonctions vitales (se nourrir, intégrer et réagir aux variations du milieu, proliférer...)</div> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La cellule est donc en quelque sorte autonome mais elle dépend tout de même des autres cellules (rares sont les cellules ne prélevant que dans le milieu des composés exclusivement inorganiques).</div> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Il peut donc exister une interdépendance cellulaire, même pour les êtres unicellulaires.</div> <h4 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(221, 221, 221); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 15.199999809265137px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.55em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Organisme_pluricellulaire_:_une_communaut.C3.A9_de_cellules_interd.C3.A9pendantes" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Organisme pluricellulaire : une communauté de cellules interdépendantes</span></h4> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Ces cellules sont totalement dépendantes du bon fonctionnement des autres cellules: chacune d'entre elles, bien qu'ayant le même matériel génétique (à de rares exceptions près: les gamètes, les lymphocytes par exemple), exprime un programme génétique particulier qui la maintient dans une voie de<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diff%C3%A9renciation_cellulaire" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Différenciation cellulaire">différenciation</a> (plus ou moins poussée). Cette spécialisation implique le fractionnement d'opérations effectuées dans une seule cellule pour les unicellulaires : les cellules d'un même organisme s'organisent en différentes structures (tissus organes systèmes....) réalisant des fonctions particulières. Ce fractionnement des fonctions nécessite une coordination entre cellules d'où l'émergence de systèmes de communication entre cellules.</div> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> On a donc une interdépendance forte au sein même de l'organisme qui se superpose à la dépendance aux autres êtres vivants.</div> <h4 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(221, 221, 221); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 15.199999809265137px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.55em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Cellule_eucaryote_:_formation_de_communaut.C3.A9s_de_cellules_intracellulaires" style="margin-right: 0.3em;">Cellule eucaryote : formation de communautés de cellules intracellulaires</span></h4> <h4 class="modifiedSectionTitle" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(221, 221, 221); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 15.199999809265137px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.55em;"> <span style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">La </span><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9orie_endosymbiotique" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; text-decoration: none;" title="Théorie endosymbiotique">théorie endosymbiotique</a><span style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"> (théorie démontrée en ce qui concerne les mitochondries et les chloroplastes) énonce que les cellules eucaryotes se sont formées à partir d'une cellule procaryote ayant phagocyté puis domestiqué des bactéries : celles-ci seraient à l'origine des mitochondries. L'invagination de cyanobactéries aurait donné naissance aux chloroplastes.</span></h4> <div style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> La cellule eucaryote dérive donc de l'association symbiotique de bactéries qui sont devenues totalement interdépendantes au point de former une seule et même unité structurale et fonctionnelle.</div> <br /> </div>

c'est quoi une cellule ?

La  cellule  (du  latin   cellula  petite chambre) est l'unité de structure, fonctionnelle et reproductrice constituant toute par...

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Le manque de sommeil fait prendre du poids

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <br /> <div id="date" style="clear: both; color: #616262; font-family: helvetica, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11px; height: 15px; margin: 0px 0px 0px 19px; padding: 0px;"> <br /></div> <div class="column-1-3" style="border-right-color: rgb(202, 202, 202); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; display: inline; float: left; font-family: helvetica, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 15px; margin: 0px 0px 0px 19px; padding: 0px 9px 0px 0px; width: 567px;"> <div id="readspeaker" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Article" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <div class="clear" style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></div> <div class="clear" style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></div> <div class="padding-bottom-15" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 15px;"> <div class="article-image-caption-3column" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <div style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <img alt="Sommeil manger" filename="sommeil" height="291" src="http://www.metrofrance.com/_internal/gxml!0/4dntvuhh2yeo4npyb3igdet73odaolf$bje2v1psdsl484ww22ja1jmze5ivuim/sommeil.jpeg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="567" /><div style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <div class="article-image-caption" style="color: #616262; font-size: 12px; line-height: 1.4; margin-top: 5px; padding: 0px;"> Trop peu de sommeil incite les personnes à manger plus qu'il ne faut.<span class="credits" style="font-size: 11px; font-style: italic; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> Photo : SUPERSTOCK/SUPERSTOCK/SIPA</span></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clear" style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></div> <h1 class="title" itemprop="name" style="font-size: 44px; font-weight: 300; line-height: 1.15; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 10px;"> Le manque de sommeil fait prendre du poids</h1> <h2 class="subtitle" itemprop="alternativeHeadline" style="font-size: 13px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 10px;"> SANTE - Une récente étude, qui consistait à ne dormir que cinq heures par nuit pendant une semaine tout en ayant accès à de la nourriture en illimité, a prouvé qu'une mauvaise nuit de sommeil était synonyme de kilos superflus.</h2> <div class="column-1-2" style="border-right-color: rgb(202, 202, 202); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; clear: left; display: inline; float: left; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px 0px 0px; width: 373px;"> <div class="share-tools-top" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(181, 181, 181); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(181, 181, 181); border-top-style: dotted; border-top-width: 1px; clear: both; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px;"> <div class="share-tools" style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 7px 0px;"> <div class="tools" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <br /></div> </div> </div> <div class="article-body" itemprop="articleBody" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <div class="small article-paragraph" style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.4; padding: 0px 0px 10px;"> Manque d'énergie et de concentration, stress, irritabilité… c'est bien connu, une mauvaise nuit de sommeil n'est pas sans avoir des conséquences sur notre organisme. En outre, une récente étude, <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/03/06/1216951110.abstract" style="color: #24763b; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">publiée dans la revue scientifique PNAS</a> vient de confirmer ce que beaucoup de médecins soupçonnaient : le manque de sommeil entraînerait également un gain de poids.</div> <div class="small article-paragraph" style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.4; padding: 0px 0px 10px;"> Selon ces derniers, le fait de rester éveillé requiert simplement plus d'énergie, conduisant ainsi à manger davantage. "Le fait de dormir moins n'est pas en soi ce qui fait grossir", estime Kenneth Wright, directeur du Laboratoire du sommeil et de chronobiologie et principal auteur de l'étude. "Mais quand on ne dort pas assez on a tendance à manger plus que nécessaire pour compenser", explique-t-il.</div> <div class="small article-paragraph" style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.4; padding: 0px 0px 10px;"> <b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Seulement cinq heures de sommeil par nuit</b></div> <div class="small article-paragraph" style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.4; padding: 0px 0px 10px;"> Pour en venir à cette conclusion, les scientifiques ont suivi seize jeunes hommes et femmes en bonne santé qui ont vécu pendant deux semaines à l'hôpital universitaire du Colorado. Pendant les cinq premiers jours, la moitié des participants ne pouvait dormir que cinq heures par nuit, tandis que l'autre groupe avait une nuit normale (huit ou neuf heures). A la fin de cette période, ils ont permuté les deux groupes et mené la même expérience cinq jours de plus. L'ensemble des patients avait accès à de la nourriture en illimité.</div> <div class="small article-paragraph" style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.4; padding: 0px 0px 10px;"> A la suite de l'expérience, les chercheurs se sont rendu compte que les personnes qui ne dormaient que cinq heures par nuit brûlaient en moyenne 5 % plus d'énergie comparativement au groupe dormant jusqu'à neuf heures. Mais ces petits dormeurs étaient également ceux qui ont consommé le plus de nourriture. D'autant que leur comportement alimentaire était très mauvais : ils déjeunaient très peu le matin mais consommaient beaucoup plus de nourriture en soirée, le moment de la journée qui nécessite le moins de calories.</div> <div class="small article-paragraph" style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.4; padding: 0px 0px 10px;"> <b style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Les petits dormeurs font les gros mangeurs</b></div> <div class="small article-paragraph" style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.4; padding: 0px 0px 10px;"> "Le manque de sommeil mène les personnes à dépenser plus d’énergie parce que le corps a plus de difficultés à rester éveillé", explique Kenneth Wright avant d'ajouter "pour combler ces besoins, les gens mangent plus, mais ils mangent encore plus que ce dont ils ont besoin, ce qui provoque une prise de poids", ajoute-t-il.</div> <div class="small article-paragraph" style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.4; padding: 0px 0px 10px;"> Les auteurs de l'étude ont également constaté que femmes et hommes répondaient différemment. En dormant normalement, les hommes ont pris un petit peu de poids tandis que les femmes ont maintenu leur ligne. Mais quand ils ne pouvaient dormir que cinq heures par nuit, hommes et femmes prenaient chacun un kilo.</div> <div class="clear" style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></div> </div> <div class="share-tools-bottom" style="clear: both; margin: 30px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"> <div class="share-tools" style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 7px 0px;"> <div class="tools" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div>

Le manque de sommeil fait prendre du poids

Trop peu de sommeil incite les personnes à manger plus qu'il ne faut.  Photo : SUPERSTOCK/SUPERSTOCK/SIPA Le manq...

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Un documentaire perdu sur L’Empire Contre Attaque

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <br /> <div class="twUnmatched" id="TWP30" style="background-color: white; border: none; color: #555555; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.6em; list-style: none; margin-bottom: 1em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span id="goog_819230567"></span><span id="goog_819230568"></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/"></a>L’Empire Contre-Attaque est considéré comme le meilleur épisode de la saga. Il est même considéré, à juste titre, comme l’un des meilleurs films de SF jamais sortis. Il existe déjà des making of revenant sur la genèse du film, comme le célèbre The Empire Strikes Back : SPFX, mais <strong style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 13px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">un autre making of </strong>vient d’être retrouvé, dévoilant des séquences totalement inédites.</div> <div id="TWP31" style="background-color: white; border: none; color: #555555; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.6em; list-style: none; margin-bottom: 1em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="http://www.journaldugeek.com/files/2013/03/dgsgs.png" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; color: #c07089; font-size: 13px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="dgsgs" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-196306" height="397" src="http://www.journaldugeek.com/files/2013/03/dgsgs-600x397.png" style="background-color: transparent; border: none; display: block; font-size: 13px; height: auto; list-style: none; margin: auto; max-width: 100%; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: bottom;" width="600" /></a></div> <div id="TWP21" style="background-color: white; border: none; color: #555555; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.6em; list-style: none; margin-bottom: 1em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span id="more-196301" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 13px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></span></div> <div class="twUnmatched" id="TWP32" style="background-color: white; border: none; color: #555555; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.6em; list-style: none; margin-bottom: 1em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> Lors du tournage, le réalisateur français Michel Parbot prend sa caméra pour montrer les coulisses de la production. Deux sont réalisés, SPFX, destiné à la télévision américaine, et un autre censé être diffusé aux Pays-Bas. Mais cette version a été oubliée puis<strong style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 13px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> a pris la poussière dans les <a class="slinks" href="http://www.journaldugeek.com/archives/" style="background-color: transparent; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: none; color: #c07089; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="archives">archives</a> de Lucasfilm.</strong></div> <div class="twUnmatched" id="TWP33" style="background-color: white; border: none; color: #555555; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.6em; list-style: none; margin-bottom: 1em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> Mais vous le savez, les fans de la saga sont prêts à tout pour retrouver des documents perdus relatifs à la saga. C’est donc pour cela qu’avec l’aide de Lucasfilm,<strong style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 13px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> ils ont déterré ce documentaire.</strong> Il a ensuite été mis en ligne il y a quelques semaines. Si vous êtes fan, mettez un casque, isolez-vous et profitez de ces 26 minutes qui sont un véritable trésor. Nous n’allons pas vous spoiler, mais sachez que vous pourrez découvrir les faces cachées parfois étonnantes de certaines scènes devenues mythiques</div> <div class="twUnmatched" id="TWP33" style="background-color: white; border: none; color: #555555; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.6em; list-style: none; margin-bottom: 1em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> pour voir ce documentaire : .</div> <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aS-HIgvANE&feature=player_embedded" target="_blank">Michel Parbot Empire Strikes Back lost documentary excerpts...</a><div class="twUnmatched" id="TWP33" style="background-color: white; border: none; color: #555555; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.6em; list-style: none; margin-bottom: 1em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> <br /></div> </div>

Un documentaire perdu sur L’Empire Contre Attaque

L’Empire Contre-Attaque est considéré comme le meilleur épisode de la saga. Il est même considéré, à juste titre, comme l’un des meilleur...

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c'est quoi la finance

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <br /> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; width: 100%px;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" valign="top"><div class="description" style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding: 0px 0px 20px;"> la finance c'est surtt la discipline qui permet de maximiser la creationd e valeur de l'entreprise par l'investissement et le placement et essaie de determiner les financement necessaire a l entreprise en veillant a baisser les cout et a trouver et aussi trouver les bonne option de financement selon la situation ou se trouve l'entreprise afin de maximiser sa valeur <br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />on peut a resumer donc la finance en une phrase <br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />la creation de richesse nessicitent des investissement qui doivent etre financer et qui doivent etre sufisament rentable ; ce si dit les principe concept de l'entreprise c est la creation de richesse /repartition des richesse ; investissement ; financement ; rentabilit</div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </div>

c'est quoi la finance

la finance c'est surtt la discipline qui permet de maximiser la creationd e valeur de l'entreprise par l'investissement et l...

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Best Picture Oscars Winners

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <br /> <div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 18px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> Focus sur <a href="http://nelsoncarvajal.com/site/NELSON_CARVAJAL.html/" style="-webkit-transition: color 0.4s ease; border: 0px; color: #d2344f; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Nelson Carvajal</a> qui a eu l’idée de reprendre le concept de l’affiche de la 85ème cérémonie des Oscars d’Olly Moss pour proposer un montage d’extraits de tous les films ayant remportés le trophée du meilleur film. Une rétrospective bien réalisée à découvrir en vidéo dans la suite de l’article.</div> <div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 18px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="http://www.fubiz.net/2013/02/22/best-picture-oscar-winners/" style="-webkit-transition: color 0.4s ease; border: 0px; color: #d2344f; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-309128" height="519" src="http://www.fubiz.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/academy2-640x519.jpg" style="border: 0px; display: block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; height: auto; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: bottom; width: 639px;" title="" width="640" /></a></div> <div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 18px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span id="more-308914" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></span></div> <div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 18px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="http://www.fubiz.net/2013/02/22/best-picture-oscar-winners/academy1/" rel="attachment wp-att-309127" style="-webkit-transition: color 0.4s ease; border: 0px; color: #d2344f; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-309127" height="426" src="http://www.fubiz.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/academy1-640x426.jpg" style="border: 0px; display: block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; height: auto; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: bottom; width: 639px;" title="academy1" width="640" /></a></div> <div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 18px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </div> <div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 18px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="http://www.fubiz.net/?attachment_id=308922" style="-webkit-transition: color 0.4s ease; 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line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 18px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="http://www.fubiz.net/2013/02/22/best-picture-oscar-winners/retrospective-best-picture-oscar-winners8a/" rel="attachment wp-att-308921" style="-webkit-transition: color 0.4s ease; border: 0px; color: #d2344f; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-308921" height="317" src="http://www.fubiz.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Retrospective-Best-Picture-Oscar-Winners8a-640x317.jpg" style="border: 0px; display: block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; height: auto; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: bottom; width: 639px;" title="Retrospective - Best Picture Oscar Winners8a" width="640" /></a></div> <div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 18px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </div> <div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 18px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="http://www.fubiz.net/2013/02/22/best-picture-oscar-winners/retrospective-best-picture-oscar-winners8/" rel="attachment wp-att-308920" style="-webkit-transition: color 0.4s ease; border: 0px; color: #d2344f; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-308920" height="322" src="http://www.fubiz.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Retrospective-Best-Picture-Oscar-Winners8-640x322.jpg" style="border: 0px; display: block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; height: auto; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: bottom; width: 639px;" title="Retrospective - Best Picture Oscar Winners8" width="640" /></a></div> <div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 18px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </div> <div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 18px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="http://www.fubiz.net/2013/02/22/best-picture-oscar-winners/retrospective-best-picture-oscar-winners5/" rel="attachment wp-att-308918" style="-webkit-transition: color 0.4s ease; border: 0px; color: #d2344f; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; font-style: inherit; 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Best Picture Oscars Winners

Focus sur  Nelson Carvajal  qui a eu l’idée de reprendre le concept de l’affiche de la 85ème cérémonie des Oscars d’Olly Moss pour propos...

مزيد من المعلومات »

Malleus Maleficarum or the hammer of witches

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://assets.natgeotv.com/Photos/08/21822.ThumbL.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://assets.natgeotv.com/Photos/08/21822.ThumbL.jpg" /></a></div> <div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> <span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">The </span></span><i><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">Malleus Maleficarum</span></span><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="line-height: 10.82386302947998px;"> </span></span></b></i><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">(meaning "Hammer of the Witches</span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">" in Latin; "Der Hexenhammer" in German) is a treatise on the prosecution of </span></span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witch" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; text-decoration: none;" title="Witch">witches</a><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">, written in 1486 by </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Kramer" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; text-decoration: none;" title="Heinrich Kramer">Heinrich Kramer</a><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">, a German </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; text-decoration: none;" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;"> clergyman. The book was first published in </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speyer" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; text-decoration: none;" title="Speyer">Speyer</a><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">, Germany in 1487 </span></span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Sprenger" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; text-decoration: none;" title="Jacob Sprenger">Jacob Sprenger</a><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;"> is also often attributed as an author, but some scholars now believe that he became associated with the </span></span><i style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px;">Malleus Maleficarum</i><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;"> largely as a result of Kramer's wish to lend his book as much official authority as possible.</span></span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 1em;"></sup></div> <div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> The main purpose of the <i>Malleus</i> was to attempt to systematically refute arguments claiming that witchcraft does not exist, discredit those who expressed skepticism about its reality, to claim that witches were more often women than men, and to educate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magistrate" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Magistrate">magistrates</a> on the procedures that could find them out and convict them.</div> <div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> </div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> The <i>Malleus Maleficarum</i> was published in 1487 by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Kramer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Heinrich Kramer">Heinrich Kramer</a> (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinisation_(literature)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Latinisation (literature)">Latinised</a> as "Institoris") and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Sprenger" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="James Sprenger">James Sprenger</a> (also known as Jacob or Jakob Sprenger). Scholars have debated how much Sprenger contributed to the work. Some say his role was minor, and that the book was written almost entirely by Kramer, who used the name of Sprenger for its prestige only,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-voces102_7-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleus_Maleficarum#cite_note-voces102-7" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">]</a></sup> while others say there is little evidence for this claim.</div> <div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> <span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px;">In 1484 Kramer made one of the first attempts at a systematic persecution of witches in the region of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tyrol" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="History of Tyrol">Tyrol</a>. It was not a success: Kramer was thrown out of the territory, and dismissed by the local bishop as a "senile old man". According to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarmaid_MacCulloch" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Diarmaid MacCulloch">Diarmaid MacCulloch</a>, writing the book was Kramer's act of self-justification and revenge. Some scholars have suggested that following the failed efforts in Tyrol, Kramer and Sprenger requested and received a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_bull" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summis_desiderantes_affectibus" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Summis desiderantes affectibus">Summis desiderantes affectibus</a></i> in 1484. It allegedly gave full papal approval for the Inquisition to prosecute witchcraft in general and for Kramer and Sprenger specifically. <i>Malleus Maleficarum</i> was written in 1486 and the papal bull was included as part of the preface</span><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="line-height: 10.82386302947998px;">.</span></span></div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> The preface also includes an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approbation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Approbation">approbation</a> from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cologne" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="University of Cologne">University of Cologne</a>'s Faculty of Theology. The authenticity of the Cologne endorsement was first questioned by Joseph Hansen but Christopher S. Mackay rejects his theory as a misunderstanding. The university in fact condemned the book for unethical legal practices and contradicting Catholic teaching on demons. Scholarly opinion is divided on whether the Cologne endorsement was a complete forgery, but there is general agreement that even if it were genuine it was misrepresented by Kramer, and that neither the Pope nor the University of Cologne was aware of the true authorship of the book, or even of its contents The <i>Malleus Maleficarum</i> drew on earlier sources such as<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Nider" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Johannes Nider">Johannes Nider</a>'s treatise <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formicarius" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Formicarius">Formicarius</a></i>, written 1435/37.</div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> The book became the handbook for secular courts throughout <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> Europe, but was not used by the Inquisition, which even cautioned against relying on the work. Between the years 1487 and 1520 the work was published thirteen times. It was again published between the years of 1574 to 1669 a total of sixteen times. Regardless of the authenticity of the endorsements which appear at the beginning of the book, their presence contributed to the popularity of the work.</div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Folk belief in reality of witchcraft had been denied by the church in earlier centuries; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> had specifically outlawed the old practice of witch burning "in the manner of the pagans" since witchcraft was originally viewed by many early medieval Christians as a pagan superstition. By the 15th century, belief in witches was once again openly accepted in European society, but they typically suffered penalties no more harsh than public penances such as a day in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stocks" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Stocks">stocks</a>.Persecution of witches became more brutal following the publication of the <i>Malleus</i>, with witchcraft being accepted as a real and dangerous phenomenon</div> <div style="line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> <b>Contents:</b></div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> The <i>Malleus Maleficarum</i> asserts that three elements are necessary for witchcraft: the evil-intentioned witch, the help of the Devil, and the Permission of God.The treatise is divided up into three sections. The first section tries to refute critics who deny the reality of witchcraft, thereby hindering its prosecution. The second section describes the actual forms of witchcraft and its remedies. The third section is to assist judges confronting and combating witchcraft. However, each of these three sections has the prevailing themes of what is witchcraft and who is a witch. The Malleus Maleficarum relies heavily upon earlier works such as Visconti and, most famously, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Nider" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Johannes Nider">Johannes Nider</a>'s <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formicarius" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Formicarius">Formicarius</a></i> (1435).</div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> </div> <h3 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Section_I">Section I</span></h3> <br /> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Section I argues that because the Devil exists and has the power to do astounding things, witches exist to help, if done through the aid of the Devil and with the permission of God. The Devil’s power is greatest where human sexuality is concerned, for it was believed that women were more sexual than men. Libidinous women had sex with the Devil, thus paving their way to become<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witches" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Witches">witches</a>. According to the <i>Malleus</i> “all witchcraft comes from carnal lust, which is in women insatiable.” The first section mentions using a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruentation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cruentation">cruentation</a> to find a witch or sorcerer.</div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> </div> <h3 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Section_II">Section II</span></h3> <br /> <div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> <span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px;">Matters of practice and actual cases are discussed, and the powers of witches and their recruitment strategies. It states that it is mostly witches, as opposed to the Devil, who do the recruiting, by making something go wrong in the life of a respectable matron that makes her consult the knowledge of a witch, or by introducing young maidens to tempting young devils.</span><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="line-height: 10.82386302947998px;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;"> It details how witches cast spells, and remedies that can be taken to prevent witchcraft, or help those that have been affected by it.</span></span></div> <div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> </div> <h3 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Section_III">Section III</span></h3> <br /> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Section III is the legal part of the <i>Malleus</i> that describes how to prosecute a witch. The arguments are clearly laid for the lay magistrates prosecuting witches. Institoris and Sprenger offer a step-by-step guide to the conduct of a witch trial, from the method of initiating the process and assembling accusations, to the interrogation (including torture) of witnesses, and the formal charging of the accused. Women who did not cry during their trial were automatically believed to be witches.</div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> </div> <h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19.1875px; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Major_themes">Major themes</span></h2> <br /> <div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> <span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px;">The treatise describes how women and men become inclined for witchcraft. The authors argue that women were more susceptible to demonic temptations through the manifold weaknesses of their gender. It was believed that they were weaker in faith and more carnal than men.</span><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="line-height: 10.82386302947998px;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 19.1875px;">Michael Bailey claims that most of the women accused as witches had strong personalities and were known to defy convention by overstepping the lines of proper female decorum.</span><span style="font-size: 12.727272033691406px; line-height: 12.997159004211426px;"> </span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;"> After the publication of the </span></span><i style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px;">Malleus,</i><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;"> it seems as though most of those individuals prosecuted as witches were women.</span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;"> Indeed, the very title of the </span></span><i style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px;">Malleus Maleficarum</i><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;"> is feminine, alluding to the idea that it was women who were the villains. Otherwise, it would be the </span></span><i style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px;">Malleus Malefic<u>o</u>rum</i><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;"> (the masculine form of the Latin noun </span></span><i style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px;">maleficus</i><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;"> or </span></span><i style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px;">malefica,</i><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;"> 'witch'). In Latin, the feminine "Maleficarum" would only be used for women while the masculine "Maleficorum" could be used for men alone or for both sexes if together.</span></span></div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> The <i>Malleus Maleficarum</i> accuses male and female witches of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infanticide" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Infanticide">infanticide</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannibalism" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cannibalism">cannibalism</a> and casting evil spells to harm their enemies as well as having the power to steal penises. It goes on to give accounts of witches committing these crimes.</div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> The ancient subjects of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Medicine">medicine</a> were being reintroduced to the West at this time, as well as a plethora of ancient texts being rediscovered and studied. The <i>Malleus</i>often makes reference to the Bible and Aristotelian thought, and it is also heavily influenced by the philosophical tenets of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonism" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Neoplatonism">Neo-Platonism</a>. It also mentions <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Astrology">astrology</a> and astronomy, which had recently been reintroduced to the West by the ancient works of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>.</div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> </div> <h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19.1875px; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Factors_stimulating_widespread_use">Factors stimulating widespread use</span></h2> <br /> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> The <i>Malleus Maleficarum</i> was able to spread throughout Europe so rapidly in the late fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century because of the innovation of the printing press in the middle of the fifteenth century by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a>. That printing should have been invented thirty years before the first publication of the <i>Malleus,</i> which instigated the fervor of witch hunting, and, in the words of Russell, "the swift propagation of the witch hysteria by the press was the first evidence that Gutenberg had not liberated man from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_sin" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Original sin">original sin</a>. The <i>Malleus</i> is also heavily influenced by the subjects of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divination" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Divination">divination</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, and healing rituals the Church inherited from antiquity.</div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> The late fifteenth century was also a period of religious turmoil, for the Protestant Reformation was but a few decades in the future. The <i>Malleus Maleficarum</i> and the witch craze that ensued took advantage of the increasing intolerance of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> in Europe, where the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantism" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> and Catholic camps, pitted against one another, each zealously strove to maintain the purity of faith.</div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgm74Nsxi1-6fX-zsXiGnhOXzm_dRpN7bq662Cw1ACCgtvzsPBsuFbxBAxN6J3PGSkI3wATfYt5v964rRLu70OcJLX7CmVg045Fd4rWrT6bEF2tDnG0aElH_ZtnMsYfS8_jADSD-58TPgx2/s320/hammer1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgm74Nsxi1-6fX-zsXiGnhOXzm_dRpN7bq662Cw1ACCgtvzsPBsuFbxBAxN6J3PGSkI3wATfYt5v964rRLu70OcJLX7CmVg045Fd4rWrT6bEF2tDnG0aElH_ZtnMsYfS8_jADSD-58TPgx2/s320/hammer1.jpg" /></a></div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> <br /></div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> </div> <h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19.1875px; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Consequences">Consequences</span></h2> <br /> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> Between 1487 and 1520, twenty editions of the <i>Malleus</i> were published, and another sixteen editions were published between 1574 and 1669.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleus_Maleficarum#cite_note-37" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">]</a></sup> However, there is scholarly agreement that publication of the <i>Malleus Maleficarum</i> was not as influential as earlier modern historians originally thought. According to MacCulloch, the <i>Malleus</i> was one of several key factors contributing to the witch craze, along with popular <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Superstition">superstition</a> and tensions created by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>.</div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> In 1490, only 3 years after it was published, the Catholic Church condemned <i>Malleus</i> as false. In 1538 the Spanish Inquisition cautioned its members not to believe everything the <i>Malleus</i> said, even when it presented apparently firm evidence.</div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> <br /></div> <div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTM_MK9GOiz0gIPRiNEYEnYIAqi4RKfBTFBJgdAc11fu8GKPiPI8g" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTM_MK9GOiz0gIPRiNEYEnYIAqi4RKfBTFBJgdAc11fu8GKPiPI8g" width="320" /></a></div> <h3 style="text-align: left;"> <span style="line-height: 10.82386302947998px;"><span style="font-size: small;">To download the book :"The hammer of witches "<a href="https://www.google.co.ma/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&ved=0CDEQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Ftheinquisition.uw.hu%2Fhammer_of_witches.pdf&ei=X1A-UfmUH4XKtAb5sYC4BA&usg=AFQjCNHEJKgThtbpnY7K3-i9u4ikvGCXeg&sig2=Br_gf5iGjqQ9wguyXYkI_A&bvm=bv.43287494,d.Yms" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">click here </a></span></span></h3> <br /> </div>

Malleus Maleficarum or the hammer of witches

The  Malleus Maleficarum   (meaning "Hammer of the Witches " in Latin; "Der Hexenhammer" in German) is a treatise o...

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